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Eurasia: U.S. Security Expert Talks About SCO Exercises, Summit

Stephen J. Blank (Courtesy Photo) August 8, 2007 (RFE/RL) -- Stephen Blank is a professor of national security studies at the U.S. Army War College's Strategic Studies Institute who has written extensively on the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). RFE/RL spoke with Blank about the SCO military exercises currently under way in China and Russia and the upcoming SCO summit in Bishkek.


Stressing that his comments did not necessarily reflect the opinions of the U.S. Army War College or the U.S. Department of Defense, Blank questioned the stated goals of the SCO's Peace Mission 2007 counterterrorism exercises, and he provided some insight into what could happen when the region's leaders gather in Kyrgyzstan on August 16.




RFE/RL: Representatives from the Shanghai Cooperation Organization have repeatedly said the organization's military cooperation is not aimed at any third country or party, yet the military exercises seem to be growing in size. Wouldn't this trend naturally be a cause of concern for the U.S. or NATO?


Stephen Blank: Certainly it would be. But although the SCO's representatives always say that it's not aimed at a third country or party, if you look at their communiques going back to 2001 -- and even before that to the Sino-Russian communiques and the formation of the six-party border agreements -- their communiques have always been full of coded anti-American foreign policy statements. So for Russia and China, it's aimed at American interests. And the size of these exercises is growing, and many experts do not believe that they are confined only to so-called antiterrorist activities, or even just to Central Asia. The August 2005 Sino-Russian exercises, which were conducted under the auspices of the SCO, were so large and [they] so thoroughly combined arms and major-theater conventional warfare in their approach, that people believed these were aimed as much at Taiwan and Korea as they were at any potential Central Asian contingency.


RFE/RL: Though the military exercises are always drills in counterterrorism, to date (eds: so far) not one of the countries in the SCO has ever requested help by invoking mutual assistance agreements. Are there any grounds for believing any of the SCO countries would ever make such a request, and if so, what sort of circumstances could you foresee that would lead to such a move?


Blank: At least hypothetically, there are grounds for thinking that something like that could happen; I think it would happen if you had an uprising against the government. And I think what galvanizes this on the part of China and Russia is that they were not able to do anything on behalf of Kyrgyzstan in 2005 (March 2005, when President Askar Akaev was ousted) and they've resolved never to be caught short again. And in Russia's case, they've established air bases; and a contingency whereby they gain access to the air base at Navoi [in central Uzbekistan] would appear to be an insurgency against the [Islam] Karimov government. So hypothetically one may think that the possibility of a state calling for help would be either if there's a massive popular insurgency -- which could happen in a succession crisis, I suppose -- or if a government loses control of a situation. Or if there was a major terrorist attack, which I think is quite an implausible scenario anytime soon. What's more, the size of these operations clearly suggests that they are intended for something beyond Central Asia.


RFE/RL: Chinese media are reporting the Chinese forces involved in the Peace Mission 2007 exercises represent the largest deployment of Chinese forces abroad for a peacetime military exercises. What does China gain from such involvement?


Blank: First of all, [the Chinese] get the experience of maneuvers and exercises, which is invaluable for a military. Second, they get to see Russian weapons in action and to test their own weapons and their own command structures. So you get all these operational benefits. And when you talk about large forces, you get to see how well you can handle large forces and combined forces in an operation of major size. Third, they continue to demonstrate their power and influence in Central Asia and to promote the SCO as a viable security organization.


RFE/RL: Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan [but not Uzbekistan] are reportedly sending units to participate in the Peace Mission 2007 exercises. What do the Central Asian countries get from this participation?


Blank: To the extent that they participate, they get the same benefits that the Chinese do -- they get to see the quality and capability of their military forces and learn about new trends in operational command and control of forces and the tactical benefits of doing these kind of operations. As far as the political benefits, it reinforces the certainty that if the scenario they're discussing -- which is if a terrorist takeover of a country -- takes place, that they will not be left in a lurch -- although, as I said, there's not much likelihood of a takeover.


RFE/RL: What does Russia get?


Blank: [Russians] are constantly obsessed with proving that they're a big power. As one of my colleagues said, it's a "phantom empire syndrome" [in which] they have to constantly tell themselves that they're a great power and that they're taken seriously and that they're a real power and demonstrate this to everybody. So that's important to them. They get all the operational benefits that everybody else does. And third, it's an attempt to convince everyone that they are the main player north of the border (north of Central Asia).


RFE/RL: What about the size of the military exercises? There will be some 6,500 troops and 80 aircraft involved. Isn't that a bit much for a counterterrorism exercise?


Blank: I think the size of these [exercises] indicates that these are not -- strictly speaking -- antiterrorist operations, although they're billed as such. They are clearly, in the Russian and perhaps in the Chinese mind as well, operations that they think they may have to carry out against larger forces than just terrorists. And I think that -- like in 2005 (joint exercises), where they were looking at a Taiwanese scenario and perhaps a Korean scenario, either a state collapse in North Korea or even a U.S. invasion, which they were afraid of -- I think that they're thinking about the possibility of a contingency in Asia where they might have to contend with the threat of an American intervention.


RFE/RL: So the numbers of troops and equipment seem excessive for a counterterrorism exercise?


Blank: That's ridiculous; that's not a counterterrorist operation, that's a full-scale theater operation. And this is an exercise. So if we were dealing with a real contingency, you can imagine how many forces they would have -- multiple of those numbers.


Bishkek Summit


RFE/RL: What do you think will be the biggest accomplishment or agreement to come out of the SCO summit in Bishkek next week?


Blank: I think that they're going to try to expand the membership and write a new charter for the organization. I think that they're going to want to bring Turkmenistan into the operation if it wants to join. Second, I think they are going to write a new charter that will probably be even more anti-American than before. I'm not sure that India, Iran, Pakistan, or Mongolia will become members. If you take India, they are going to have to [accept] Pakistan, that would have to be a compromise. Iran is another question altogether, and I'm not sure that Iran is going to be admitted as a member, although Iran certainly wants it. But I would concentrate on three things: One is the membership; one is the new charter; and I'd also expect the Russians to push the idea of an energy organization, the gas cartel, which [Russian President Vladimir] Putin has been pushing throughout the year. I think that he's going to make a major effort to push that further at the Bishkek summit as well.


RFE/RL: But won't there be 'hurt feelings' from India, Iran, Pakistan, and Mongolia because they have been trying to get into the SCO for years and Turkmenistan suddenly is invited to the summit and admitted so quickly?


Blank: I think that there might be hurt feelings, but politically it's very difficult. There has to be a trade-off. India and Pakistan coming in means that Russia has to agree to Pakistan and China [has to agree] to India. Maybe they will, but it's still a tough compromise that has to be worked out. Mongolia, I think, presents fewer problems and might be brought in. Iran is altogether a different issue, because the Iranians want to get in there because the centerpiece of Iranian foreign policy has been an attempt to enlist Russia and China on their side -- and to a considerable degree they have succeeded. But now the Russians have shown this year that they are increasingly suspicious of Iranian ambitions and aims. And last year, [Russian Defense Minister and First Deputy Prime Minister] Sergei Ivanov talked about the question of Iranian membership in very disparaging terms. Iran would probably use this as an attempt to invoke the treaty charter for self-defense if an American or some other attack came against it, and the Russians already made it clear that they would be neutral -- they would not intervene in an American military attack on Iran, although they oppose it strongly. So taking Iran into the organization creates some difficulties on a very significant level.


RFE/RL: Turkmen President Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov is attending the summit. What role if any could Turkmenistan play in the SCO? Do you see any possibility that Turkmenistan would someday be admitted as a member, and, if so, what would that mean for the countries that have been trying to receive full membership (India, Iran, Mongolia, and Pakistan)? What would Turkmenistan's membership mean for the Turkmen government's official policy of "positive neutrality"?


Blank: The new government led by Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov is much more vigorous in its foreign policy activities. It's conducting a much more robust foreign policy, and it's already been announced that [Berdymukhammedov] will be attending and that he was invited to the meeting. I don't think he would be invited unless something was going to come down, so I do think that there's going to be some movement on Turkmenistan at this session.


RFE/RL: The summit is in Bishkek, and there are both a U.S. and Russian (technically CSTO) military base in Kyrgyzstan. Do you think some attention will be devoted to the U.S. presence in Kyrgyzstan, perhaps a repeat of calls from the 2005 summit that preceded the U.S. withdrawal from the base in Uzbekistan?


Blank: I don't expect there to be a public attack on the base, because the compromise that appears to have been reached is that the Kyrgyz would not threaten the status of the (Manas) base as long as the situation in Afghanistan is unstable; and in 2005 the Russians were saying, "There's no problem in Afghanistan; it's all over but the cheering." But [now] that's certainly not the case. The Russian and the Chinese have been bringing enormous pressure on the Kyrgyz to push the U.S. out of there, but the Kyrgyz will keep the base there I think as long as the Afghan situation is unstable. Privately, I suspect there will be some tough discussions about that, but I don't expect this to be reflected in the public documents at the conference. I do expect the Russians and Chinese to keep pushing to get the United States out of Central Asia, which of course raises the question of just how committed Russia is to supporting the U.S. in the war on terrorism.

China In Central Asia

China In Central Asia
The Almaty,Kazakhstan, office of China's National Petroleum Corporation (RFE/RL)

BEIJING ON THE RISE: The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States prompted Washington to topple the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. At the time, many predicted the United States would gain a new foothold in Central Asia: new U.S. military bases appeared in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, U.S. foreign aid increased, and much U.S. attention was lavished on the region. Russia and China looked on warily. But the pendulum may be swinging back in Moscow’s and Beijing’s favor. China, especially, has expended great effort at winning friends in Central Asia and is becoming a force to be reckoned with....(more)


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Senior Iranian Cleric Accused Of Corruption In Land Deal

Imam Kazem Seddiqi (file photo)
Imam Kazem Seddiqi (file photo)

Kazem Seddiqi, Tehran's temporary Friday Prayers Imam, and his sons have been accused by a local journalist of having acquired several thousand square meters of prime real estate in the Iranian capital's northern districts, which he denies.

According to documents published by Iranian journalist Yashar Soltani, Seddiqi and his children acquired of a lush 4,200 square meter garden in Tehran's Ozgol area.

Soltani's research appears to show that around two decades ago, Seddiqi laid the foundations for the Ozgol Seminary on an expansive 20,000 square meter site near Tajrish, a significant portion of which was under the stewardship of the Endowments Organization and Tehran Municipality, a semigovernmental body in Iran responsible for overseeing all endowments that do not have a designated guardian.

The documents appear to further show that in 2022, a section of the land measuring 4,200 square meters was transferred to a company allegedly owned by Seddiqi and his two sons, Mohammad Mehdi and Mohammad Hossein.

Seddiqi has rejected the accusations claiming signatures on the documentation are forged and that a trusted associate had fraudulently registered the institution under his name without his consent.

In his most recent public appearance during Friday Prayers on March 16, Seddiqi lauded the "financial discipline" of President Ebrahim Raisi's administration while chastising “the wealthy” for their electoral apathy with record-low turnout in elections on March 1 for a new parliament, or Majlis, and a new Assembly of Experts.

Seddiqi has come under fire from political figures, media personalities aligned with reformers, and even some government allies who are skeptical of his insistence that the land was appropriated unbeknownst to him.

The delay in Seddiqi's rebuttal to the forgery allegations has fueled further speculation and demands for his resignation or dismissal on grounds of either malfeasance or incompetence. Additionally, there are calls for a thorough investigation of the matter.

Friday Prayer leaders across all Iranian cities are appointed by the supreme leader of the Islamic republic, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, and hold substantial influence.

In recent years, numerous figures closely linked to the supreme leader have been embroiled in scandals involving financial corruption. Though some have faced trials, the effectiveness of these legal proceedings and the subsequent enforcement of their sentences have been met with skepticism.


In one high-profile case, Akbar Tabari, a former senior official within Iran's judiciary, was released from prison in June 2023 after serving less than three years of a 58-year sentence for financial corruption.

Iran is among the world's most corrupt nations, according to Transparency International, which ranked it 149 out of 180 countries in its 2023 Corruption Perception Index.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Iran Fears Loss Of Clout In The Caucasus

The Iranian and Azerbaijani flags fly on opposite ends of the Khodafarin Bridge on the border of the two countries.
The Iranian and Azerbaijani flags fly on opposite ends of the Khodafarin Bridge on the border of the two countries.

An emboldened Azerbaijan, backed by Turkey, has changed the balance of power in the South Caucasus in recent years.

Baku reclaimed full control over Nagorno-Karabakh, a breakaway region that for three decades had been under ethnic-Armenian control, last year.

A weakened Armenia, meanwhile, has distanced itself from its traditional ally, Russia, and looked to move closer to the West.

The geopolitical changes in the region have raised concerns in Iran, which neighbors Armenia and Azerbaijan. Tehran fears it could lose its clout in a region that has long been dominated by Moscow, an ally.

The Islamic republic strongly opposes the proposed east-west Zangezur Corridor that would connect mainland Azerbaijan to its Naxcivan exclave through Armenian territory and open a long-sought trade route to Tehran's rival, Turkey, and beyond.

Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan (right) listens to Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi during a joint news conference following their meeting at the presidential palace in Ankara, Turkey, on January 24.
Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan (right) listens to Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi during a joint news conference following their meeting at the presidential palace in Ankara, Turkey, on January 24.

Iran is also concerned Baku could forcibly seize territory in southern Armenia to create territorial continuity with Naxcivan, which would cut off Tehran from Yerevan, an ally.

Iran also opposes normalization between Armenia and Turkey, a scenario that could reduce Yerevan's dependence on Tehran and pave the way for greater Western influence in the volatile region.

"The changing dynamics in the region and the decline of Russia's relative influence pose potential challenges to Iran's long-term geopolitical and security goals in the region," said Hamidreza Azizi, a fellow at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs.

Cutting Iran Out

The top diplomats of Armenia and Turkey met on March 1 in the Turkish coastal city of Antalya and reiterated their nations' intention to fully normalize relations.

That meeting was viewed with apprehension by some pundits inside Iran who suggested such a move would cut Tehran out of the region.

"If Ankara's efforts to normalize relations with Yerevan are successful, leading to the establishment of the Zangezur Corridor, it could indeed marginalize Iran geopolitically," Azizi said.

The 45-kilometer-long proposed corridor, Azizi said, would "not only enhance Turkish and Azerbaijani influence by providing a direct link between the two but also bypass Iran, diminishing its role as a potential regional transit hub."

Eldar Mamedov, a Brussels-based expert on the South Caucasus, said the corridor would effectively leave Iran "excessively dependent on the goodwill of Ankara and Baku for the security of its northern borders and also for accessing transit routes [to Russia]."

Azerbaijan's increasingly cozy relations with Iran's archfoe, Israel, have fueled tensions with Tehran.

Iran is also wary that Baku's growing influence in the region could fuel "irredentist tendencies" among Iran's large ethnic Azeri population, separated from Azerbaijan by the Aras River and located primarily in Iran's East and West Azerbaijan provinces, Mamedov said.

For Armenia and Turkey to normalize relations, Yerevan and Baku first need to sign a peace agreement, according to Benyamin Poghosyan, a senior research fellow at the Applied Policy Research Institute of Armenia.

Poghosyan said Azerbaijan would only sign the deal if Armenia conceded to all of Baku's demands, including the establishment of the Zangezur Corridor.

"But I don't believe Armenia will agree to provide Azerbaijan [with an] extraterritorial corridor," he said.

Poghosyan added that Azerbaijan is unlikely to forcibly seize Armenian territory to establish the corridor given the presence of a "hard-power deterrent" like Iran.

Wary of The West?

In February, Armenia suspended its membership in the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO).

The government of Prime Minister Nikol Pashinian has long criticized the CSTO for its "failure to respond to the security challenges" facing Armenia.

In 2020, Baku recaptured parts of Nagorno-Karabakh, a mainly ethnic-Armenian-populated region inside Azerbaijan, following a six-week war that ended with a Russian-brokered cease-fire.

Armenian defense officials met with their Iranian counterparts in Tehran on March 6.
Armenian defense officials met with their Iranian counterparts in Tehran on March 6.

In September 2023, Azerbaijan retook the rest of the territory after a lightning offensive that resulted in the full capitulation of the de facto Karabakh government.

Armenian authorities have accused Russian peacekeepers deployed to Nagorno-Karabakh after the 2020 war of failing to stop Azerbaijan's offensive last year, a claim rejected by Moscow.

Armenia on March 6 said it had requested Moscow to remove Russian border troops from the international airport in Yerevan, the latest sign of souring relations.

The moves have fueled concerns in Iran that Armenia could turn to the West to guarantee its security.

In an apparent warning, Iranian Defense Minister Amir Ashtiani on March 6 told his Armenian counterpart in Tehran that "looking for security outside the region will have the opposite effect."

"We believe that the security architecture of the region should be designed in the region; therefore, any approach by countries in the region against this policy would be in no way acceptable," Ashtiani warned Suren Papikyan.

Poghosyan said Armenia seeks to "diversify its foreign and security policy" but that it was too soon to tell whether it wants to completely pivot to the West or just strengthen relations with Western powers without abandoning Russia.

He added that Iran has made it clear to Armenia that it "would not tolerate geopolitical changes in the South Caucasus, which means not only changes [to] borders, but also changes [to the] balance of power in the region."

For all their differences, Iranian and Western interests converge on their support for Armenian sovereignty.

As such, Mamedov argued, Iran's opposition to a Western presence "may not be as rigid as it appears to be in the official rhetoric."

But it is unclear if that will lead to any collaboration.

"The overarching anti-Western stance in Iranian foreign policy and Tehran's presumed desire not to upset Moscow in the South Caucasus make such cooperation very unlikely," Azizi said.

Iranians Visit Slain Protesters' Graves As New Year Approaches

A traditional Haft-Sin table in Iran pays remembrance to those who died during the Women, Life, Freedom protests.
A traditional Haft-Sin table in Iran pays remembrance to those who died during the Women, Life, Freedom protests.

Iranian families have visited the graves of relatives who lost their lives in protests despite a heavy police presence and heightened tensions over government restrictions on freedoms.

In the western Iranian city of Sanandaj, despite a heavy security presence, many families of those who died in the Women, Life, Freedom protests made their way to the graves of their loved ones as the Persian New Year, which in 2024 coincides with the onset of spring on March 20, approaches.

Pictures and video on social media showed visitors at the resting places of notable figures, including Mahsa Mogouei, a taekwondo champion from Isfahan who was killed in 2022; Aylar Haqi, a doctor from Tabriz; Mohsen Mousavi from Tehran's bazaar area; and Abolfazl Mahdipour, among others.

In one expression of grief and remembrance, the family of Sina Naderi from Kermanshah could be seen arranging a traditional Norouz Haft-Sin table on his grave, blending the celebration of the new year with the mourning of their loss.

Kamellia Sajadian, grieving for her son Mohammad Hasan Turkman and in honor of Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini, who was executed during the protests, took to Instagram to urge Iranians to remember all of those "waiting for their kind-hearted and those imprisoned, whose hearts remain with their children buried in the soil."

Many Iranians took to the streets in 2022 to protest against declining living standards and a lack of freedoms. The unrest grew after the death of Mahsa Amini in September of that year. The 22-year-old died under mysterious circumstances while she was in police custody for an alleged head-scarf violation.

The clampdown resulted in the deaths of approximately 600 demonstrators, as reported by human rights groups, and thousands of arrests. The Iranian judiciary has also executed several protesters, further inflaming public outcry against the regime's harsh tactics.

The government has been accused of stepping up the pressure on the victims' families through collective arrests and the summoning of grieving families by security agencies with the aim of keeping them from commemorating the lives of their loved ones, which the government fears will trigger further unrest.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Baku Said To Be Preparing To Reopen Tehran Embassy After Attack

The Azerbaijani Embassy was the scene of an armed assault in January 2023 that resulted in the death of one embassy employee and left two others injured. 
The Azerbaijani Embassy was the scene of an armed assault in January 2023 that resulted in the death of one embassy employee and left two others injured. 

The Azerbaijani Embassy in Tehran is preparing to resume operations, according to Iran's ambassador to Baku, signaling a potential thaw in relations between the two countries.

In a statement to Baku TV, Iranian Ambassador Abbas Musavi said preparations for the reopening are under way, with an Azerbaijani delegation already having made the journey to Tehran. He did not give a specific date for the reopening.

The announcement comes a year after the Azerbaijani Embassy was the scene of an armed assault in January 2023 that resulted in the death of one embassy employee and left two others injured.

The attack, which Baku has called an "act of terrorism," led to a significant downturn in diplomatic relations, prompting Azerbaijan to remove its embassy staff from Tehran. Azerbaijan left open its consulate in Tabriz.

Musavi addressed the incident, saying that investigations by both nations concluded the attack was an isolated act driven by personal motives. The assailant, identified as Yasin Husseinzadeh, has been apprehended and tried. Details of the sentence were not released, but in Iran murder is punishable by a maximum penalty of death.

The trial of Husseinzadeh, marking a year since the attack, has been a focal point in discussions between the two countries, with Iran's Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian confirming on March 16 that a delegation from Azerbaijan would soon visit Tehran to facilitate the embassy's reopening.

Baku had said that the identification and prosecution of anyone involved in the attack were prerequisites for the normalization of relations and the reopening of its embassy in Tehran.

Relations between Iran and Azerbaijan also have been complicated by Azerbaijan's ties with Israel and Iran's support for Shiite groups in Azerbaijan. Such disputes have led to mutual accusations and arrests over alleged espionage and efforts to establish a theocratic state in Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijan has also accused Iran of backing Armenia in a long-standing conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.

Iran also has long accused Azerbaijan of fueling separatist sentiments among its sizeable ethnic Azeri minority.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Persia From Above, A Century Ago

In the winter of 1924, inhabitants of a small village near Tehran looked up as a metal-bodied airplane swooped in to land, bumped along a field, then collapsed in a cloud of dust after its landing gear broke.

Women in burqas watch as Walter Mittelholzer’s plane is repaired outside a settlement 40 kilometers from Tehran in December 1924.
Women in burqas watch as Walter Mittelholzer’s plane is repaired outside a settlement 40 kilometers from Tehran in December 1924.

The pilot of the plane was Swiss aviator Walter Mittelholzer, who had received an invitation from the Persian government to deliver a new Junkers aircraft to the country, which would be renamed Iran in 1935.

Swiss aviator and photographer Walter Mittelholzer (left) and mechanic Ernst Bissegger before their 1924 flight to Persia
Swiss aviator and photographer Walter Mittelholzer (left) and mechanic Ernst Bissegger before their 1924 flight to Persia

Kaspar Surber, a Swiss journalist who wrote a book on Mittelholzer, told RFE/RL the aviator was chosen for the flight to Persia in part to "popularize flying" through aerial images he would take there.

Mittelholzer was famous at the time for becoming the first person to extensively photograph Switzerland's mountains from an airplane.

Tehran photographed from an altitude of 400 meters with the Alborz mountain range in the background
Tehran photographed from an altitude of 400 meters with the Alborz mountain range in the background

In the 1920s, Surber says there was something of a "race" between German and British aviation companies to begin air services in Persia, making Mittelholzer's photography skills a key promotional advantage.

A Swiss newspaper wrote of the aviator, "The Swiss people know what to expect from their Mr. Mittelholzer, who can not only pilot a plane across unknown countries but also photograph and film in flight."

The Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine in northern Iran
The Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine in northern Iran

After their ignominious landing 40 kilometers outside of Tehran, Mittelholzer and mechanic Ernst Bissegger had a tense confrontation with villagers before help eventually arrived from the Persian capital and their aircraft was repaired.

Locals pull Mittelholzer’s plane into position at an airfield in Persia.
Locals pull Mittelholzer’s plane into position at an airfield in Persia.

Mittelholzer and Bissegger's flight of more than 3,000 kilometers from Switzerland to Persia included a standoff with Turkish authorities who confiscated their plane, troubles with poor-quality gasoline purchased in Baghdad, and erroneous maps that forced them into the ill-fated landing during which their plane's landing gear collapsed.

A river cuts through an unidentified Persian mountain range.
A river cuts through an unidentified Persian mountain range.

Mittelholzer’s initial impressions of the territory of Persia from above were of "areas that lie desolate and empty and wander past the observing eye for hours. Huge alluvial fans, piles of rubble, and deltas of saline rivers [that] characterize the country."

A small village in Persia
A small village in Persia

Isolated settlements occasionally came into view as the pair flew over Persian territory.

"Here and there a green patch shines," Mittelholzer wrote, "a space in the center of which features residents' mud huts rising on narrow and winding streets. Silver bands mark the irrigation channels at the edges of the gardens."

Bushehr, a town on the Persian Gulf, is seen from an altitude of 300 meters.
Bushehr, a town on the Persian Gulf, is seen from an altitude of 300 meters.

Mittelholzer seized the opportunity to photograph Persia extensively from above in photographs that are now held by the ETH Zurich library.

The port in Bushehr
The port in Bushehr

The Swiss aviator and photographer also made use of his camera on the ground to capture a country on the cusp of dramatic change under Reza Shah Pahlavi, a ruler who would become known as Persia's "modernizing strongman."

A walled village in Persia photographed from Mittelholzer’s plane
A walled village in Persia photographed from Mittelholzer’s plane

At the time of Mittelholzer's visit to Persia, the country was without major rail or road networks, and camel caravans were still in use as a means of foreign trade, making air transport an enticing possibility for the country's rulers.

Isfahan, in the center of today's Iran, as seen in 1924
Isfahan, in the center of today's Iran, as seen in 1924

With the aviation industry still in its infancy in Persia, Mittelholzer and Bissegger had the sky virtually to themselves as they swept low over urban centers to snap images that would soon stun European audiences.

A Junkers airplane photographed by Mittelholzer flying over Tehran
A Junkers airplane photographed by Mittelholzer flying over Tehran

Mittelholzer predicted that aerial photography would play a significant role in documentary imagery of the future.

"Another hitherto unseen world opens up before us. It is as if the Earth has thereby gained a new face, and man a new, unflawed eye," he wrote in 1928.

A fishing vessel under construction in Bushehr
A fishing vessel under construction in Bushehr

After spending several weeks inside Iran, the two Swiss aviators eventually made the long trek back to Central Europe by car. Mittelholzer would later co-found a company that became Swissair, Switzerland's national carrier until 2002. He died in a mountaineering accident in 1937 aged 43.

Kashan, in today’s Isfahan Province of Iran
Kashan, in today’s Isfahan Province of Iran

In a newspaper obituary, a friend noted that Mittelholzer's death in the mountains that he loved, and that had sparked his extraordinary career, had a certain tragic poetry: "They have embraced him 0n his last wanderings and claimed him, and perhaps he would not have wished for a better end, but alas it came all too soon, there was so much more for him to do."

Iran's Medical Council Warns Of Doctor Shortage Due To Emigration

The report cited the ongoing economic crisis in Iran as a key reason for medical personnel choosing to leave. (file photo)
The report cited the ongoing economic crisis in Iran as a key reason for medical personnel choosing to leave. (file photo)

Iran's Medical Council in a March 16 report warned that the country is facing a shortage of doctors, especially pediatric surgeons, because of the increasing number of physicians emigrating from the country. The nongovernmental organization's report cited the ongoing economic crisis in Iran as a key reason for medical personnel choosing to leave. Mohammad Raiszadeh, head of the council, previously called the "emptying of physicians" a "serious" crisis and warned about the future of Iran's health sector. To read the original story by RFE/RL's Radio Farda, click here.

Iranian Religious Scholar, Women's Rights Activist Arrested

Sedigheh Vasmaghi (file photo)
Sedigheh Vasmaghi (file photo)

Sedigheh Vasmaghi, a prominent Iranian religious scholar and political activist, has been arrested by plainclothes security agents, her husband, Mohammad Ebrahimzadeh, said on March 16. Vasmaghi was arrested at her home by four agents -- three men and a woman – with what they said was a court order. They seized her laptop, medications, and her cane, her husband said. Vasmaghi had been summoned by the authorities in the past and is an outspoken critic of the clerical establishment and the compulsory hijab. She had worn a head scarf for years, but in recent months she appeared without a head scarf to protest the repression of women, she told RFE/RL. To read the original story by RFE/RL's Radio Farda, click here.

The Azadi Briefing: Taliban's Investment In Iranian Port Signals Shift Away From Pakistan

Iranian President Hassan Rohani inaugurates the first phase of the Chabahar Port in the southern Iranian coastal city in December 2017.
Iranian President Hassan Rohani inaugurates the first phase of the Chabahar Port in the southern Iranian coastal city in December 2017.

Welcome to The Azadi Briefing, an RFE/RL newsletter that unpacks the key issues in Afghanistan. To subscribe, click here.

I'm Abubakar Siddique, senior correspondent at RFE/RL's Radio Azadi. Here's what I've been tracking and what I'm keeping an eye on in the days ahead.

The Key Issue

The Taliban has said it will invest around $35 million in Iran's strategic Chabahar Port, located in the country’s southeast.

The move announced in late February is seen as an attempt to lessen landlocked Afghanistan's dependence on Pakistani ports to access international markets.

Relations between the Taliban and Pakistan, longtime allies, have plummeted in recent years. Islamabad has accused the Taliban of harboring anti-Pakistani militants.

As bilateral ties have deteriorated, Islamabad has sporadically closed the border with Afghanistan, blocked the transit of Afghan imports, and increased taxes on Afghan exports to Pakistan. The moves have hit traders and the fragile Afghan economy hard.

“Depending on a country that has been heavily involved in Afghanistan’s affairs in such a critical area was not the right thing for Afghanistan,” a senior Taliban official told told Arab News. “Particularly that the economy of the other country is closely tied with politics."

Why It's Important: The Taliban’s decision to turn to Iran to access international markets is a strategic move with regional implications.

Access to the Chabahar Port reduces Afghanistan’s reliance on Pakistan and gives it access to India, Islamabad’s archenemy and Kabul’s traditional ally.

Islamabad has historically been Kabul’s biggest trading partner, but Iran has taken its place in recent years.

In Pakistan, foreign policy experts have expressed concern at Kabul’s expanding trade ties with its other neighbors.

“Pakistan-Afghanistan trade has dwindled from a high of $4 billion to less than a billion now,” former lawmaker Mushahid Hussain Syed wrote on X, previously Twitter.

According to the World Bank, Afghanistan’s trade with India increased by 43 percent to $570 million last year.

Since 2002, India has invested hundreds of millions of dollars in developing Chabahar and linking Afghanistan to the Iranian port.

“As a competitor of Pakistan, India cooperates with any government in Kabul if its relations with Islamabad are tense,” Nasrullah Stanikzai, an Afghan political expert, told RFE/RL’s Radio Azadi.

What's Next: The Taliban is following in the footsteps of the former Western-backed Afghan government, which saw the country’s economic future linked with Chabahar.

The cash-strapped Taliban, which remains unrecognized and sanctioned by the international community, is likely to increasingly turn to Iran to increase trade and develop the Afghan economy.

What To Keep An Eye On

The World Bank has said work has resumed on the Afghan section of a $1.2 billion project to build a power line from Central Asia to South Asia.

Work on CASA-1000 was suspended after the Taliban forcibly seized power in Afghanistan in 2021.

The World Bank announced last month that it would move forward with financing pylons and other infrastructure in the Afghan section. The Taliban confirmed the move last week.

The project will allow Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to sell excess energy to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the summer months.

Why It's Important: The project, if completed, would be a major boon for the Afghan economy because Kabul will receive cheap hydropower and substantial transit fees.

CASA-1000 has long been seen by Afghanistan as part of its goal to be a regional hub of connectivity and trade.

That's all from me for now. Don't forget to send me any questions, comments, or tips that you have. You can always reach us at azadi.english@rferl.org.

Until next time,

Abubakar Siddique

If you enjoyed this briefing and don't want to miss the next edition, subscribe here. It will be sent to your inbox every Friday. You can always reach us at azadi.english@rferl.org

Oscar-Winning Director Asghar Farhadi Cleared Of Plagiarism By Iranian Court

Oscar-winning Iranian director Asghar Farhadi
Oscar-winning Iranian director Asghar Farhadi

An Iranian court has cleared two-time Oscar-winning director Asghar Farhadi of plagiarism charges over his film A Hero, which won the Grand Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 2021. A former student, Azadeh Masihzadeh, had accused Farhadi of stealing the idea for the movie from a documentary she made during a workshop run by the director in 2014 in Tehran. Farhadi's public relations firm on March 13 said in a statement the court verdict was based on the "expert" opinions of three prominent professors at Tehran University, as well as experts and lecturers in the field of intellectual property rights and arts. To read the original story by RFE/RL's Radio Farda, click here.

Iran's Inflation Taking Bite Out Of Traditional Persian New Year Meals

Iranians buying items to celebrate the Persian New Year in Tehran. (file photo)
Iranians buying items to celebrate the Persian New Year in Tehran. (file photo)

Iranians, already hit hard by declining living standards, are seeing steep price increases for essential goods as the Persian New Year, Norouz, approaches.

The New Year, which this year follows the start of the holy month of Ramadan and heralds the start of spring on March 20, is traditionally a time of celebration. But the surge in prices, according to local media, has forced many to prioritize essential food items over other purchases of new clothes for the New Year celebrations at a time already marred by economic hardship.

The Tehran-based Etemad newspaper highlighted the impact of these price hikes on Ramadan, noting that the cost of consumer goods for iftar meals has multiplied compared to the previous year as Iranians continue to endure an annual inflation rate that for the past five years has been above 40 percent while purchasing power has been decimated.

The cost of preparing the traditional haft-sin table, a central part of Norouz celebrations, has also skyrocketed, retailers said.

Unrest has rattled Iran for more than a year in response to declining living standards, wage arrears, and a lack of welfare support.

The country's economy has been ravaged by U.S. sanctions, hitting budget revenues hard while also leading to a surge of protests. Labor Ministry data show that Iran's poverty rate doubled in 2021, with one-third of the population living in "extreme poverty." Since then, conditions have failed to improve.

In September 2023, Iran's Misery Index, calculated by the Iranian Statistics Center, rose to 60.4 -- its highest point ever and more than double what it was six years ago. The higher the rating, the worse off people feel.

Rasoul Shajari, the head of Tehran's Shoemakers Union, reported a 25 percent drop in demand amid a 30 percent increase in prices in Tehran's pre-Norouz shoe market. Meanwhile, the Ettela'at newspaper said its survey of retailers showed a significant decline in the demand for sweets, a staple of Norouz celebrations, due to high prices.

Compounding the economic pressures, Tehran's City Council announced fare increases for public transport, including a 16 percent rise for the subway, 21 percent for rapid transit buses, and 30 percent for regular buses, further squeezing the already strained budgets of Tehran's residents.

The situation outside the capital is just as bad.

The Mehr news agency reported from the central Iranian province of Semnan that some prices have jumped "significantly" in the weeks leading up to the holiday season.

The Etemad newspaper, in a rare move, urged officials to refrain from exacerbating the situation with "additional social pressures" such as clamping down on wearing the hijab.

The Misery Index is also seen as a barometer for societal issues, with a direct link to crime rates and even instances of suicide. The most recent index also showed that in the past year, 22 of Iran's 31 provinces reported a reading surpassing the national average, highlighting countrywide discontent.

Several protests have been held by Iranians over the past year in response to declining living standards, wage arrears, and a lack of welfare support.

The death of Amini while in police custody for allegedly wearing a head scarf improperly has added fuel to the unrest, as Iranians have also demonstrated against a lack of freedoms and women's rights.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Iranian Protesters Voice Outrage During Fire Festival

Iranian Protesters Voice Outrage During Fire Festival
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Throughout Iran, protesters called for change and chanted "Freedom" on March 12 during traditional bonfires for Chaharshanbe Suri. The annual fire festival, held ahead of Persian New Year, or Norouz, has become an outlet for protest.

Fires And Feast As Iranians Prepare For Persian New Year Amid Heightened Tension

Revelers take part in the traditional fire feast known as Chaharshanbe Suri on March 12. The ancient Persian festival of Zoroastrian origin marks the eve of the last Wednesday before the Persian New Year that begins on March 20.

Suspects Who Published Video Of Hospital Fight Arrested In Iran

The video in question shows a woman without the mandatory hijab holding her baby, leading to widespread public and online outrage. 
The video in question shows a woman without the mandatory hijab holding her baby, leading to widespread public and online outrage. 

Iran's judiciary has confirmed the arrest of individuals linked to a video circulating on social media that shows a confrontation between a cleric and a woman at a hospital in the central city of Qom, saying the incident was an attempt to sow "division" inside the country.

Ruhollah Muslemkhani, the deputy prosecutor of Qom, said four people had been detained in the case, which he described as “a deliberate act aimed at sowing discord within society.” He added that the case has been transferred to the Intelligence Ministry.

According to the Tasnim news agency, which is associated with the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, the deputy prosecutor said the arrested individuals were accused of “distributing the video to the London-based Iran International news channel with the intention of creating societal division” in Iran.

Government officials had initially defended the cleric involved in the confrontation.

The episode comes amid heightened sensitivity to public decency and hijab enforcement in Iran, with the video in question showing a woman, without the mandatory hijab, holding her baby, leading to widespread public and online outrage.

The woman demanded the cleric delete the unauthorized video, but instead he refused, insisting she cover up. As the confrontation intensified, the woman began to show signs of having a nervous breakdown while the man ultimately departed with the camera and video.

The woman's condition following the incident remains unknown. There was no further information on the cleric involved in the confrontation.

This case follows a recent pattern of a public outcry over clerical interference and the enforcement of the mandatory hijab, especially during and since the nationwide protests broke out in September 2022 following the death of Mahsa Amini while in police custody for an alleged head scarf violation.

The Iranian government and its officials, including those in President Ebrahim Raisi's administration, often support the so-called promoters of virtue in their efforts to enforce dress codes, with Interior Minister Ahmad Vahidi stating no permission is needed to advise women and girls on hijab compliance.

The hijab, or Islamic head scarf, became compulsory for women and girls over the age of 9 in 1981, two years after the Islamic Revolution in Iran. The move triggered protests that were swiftly crushed by the new authorities.

Many women have flouted the rule over the years and pushed the boundaries of what officials say is acceptable clothing.

Since Amini died, thousands of Iranians have taken to the streets to demand more freedoms and women's rights, with the judiciary, backed by lawmakers, responding to the biggest threat to the Islamic government since the 1979 revolution with a brutal crackdown.

Several thousand people have been arrested, including many protesters, as well as journalists, lawyers, activists, digital rights defenders, and others.

At least nine protesters have been executed after what rights groups and several Western governments have called "sham" trials.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Iran Official Says Health System Faces 'Disaster' Over Nurse Exodus

A nurse at a hospital in Hamedan, Iran, pauses for a moment while caring for patients with the coronavirus in April 2021.
A nurse at a hospital in Hamedan, Iran, pauses for a moment while caring for patients with the coronavirus in April 2021.

A member of the leadership of Iran's Medical Council (IRIMC) says the issue of nurses migrating to other countries has become a full-blown crisis, leaving Iran's hospitals far below international standards for treating patients.

Abolghasem Talebi, a member of the Supreme Council of IRIMC, told state-run radio on March 11 that the stark disparity between Iran and the global standard for nurse-to-bed ratios highlights the critical state of the country's health-care system.

He said nearly 3,000 nurses leave Iran each year, a figure that starkly contrasts with the 10,000 individuals trained annually at the country's educational institutions. This mass exodus, Talebi said, creates a "disaster" for the nation's health-care system.

"While the international norm stands at three nurses per bed, Iran's ratio is alarmingly less than a third of this benchmark," he said.

Talebi said Iran's health-care system currently employs around 240,000 nurses and that even with recruitment efforts trying to match the current total number of active nurses the system remains well below accepted international standards.

The Iranian Nursing System Organization has acknowledged the alarming rate of nurse migration and its effects on patient care, noting that retirement levels -- around 6,000 nurses annually -- is making it even harder to staff nursing stations, "compromising the quality of care and potentially leading to increased patient mortality."

Thousands of Iranian health professionals have left their homeland in recent years, mainly due to the country’s deepening economic crisis, difficult working conditions, and the lack of social and political freedoms.

Iranian media outlets estimate some 16,000 doctors, including specialists, have left the Islamic republic since 2020, leading to warnings of a public health-care crisis.

Tehran's harsh response to unrest across the country -- both by struggling industrial workers and farmers suffering severe water shortages in recent years, as well as supporters of the country's Women, Life, Freedom movement who have voiced their anger at the clerical establishment -- appears to have pushed many Iranians to consider leaving as well.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Tehran Court Says Iranian-German National, U.S. Must Pay $2.5 Billion Over 2008 Bombing

Jamshid Sharmahd in an Iranian courtroom in 2022
Jamshid Sharmahd in an Iranian courtroom in 2022

A court in Tehran has ordered Iranian-German national Jamshid Sharmahd and the United States government to pay $2.5 billion in compensation to victims of a 2008 bombing in Shiraz in southern Iran.

The Tehran International Claims Court handed down its decision on March 11, saying 116 plaintiffs claiming to be families of the deceased and wounded in the attack at the Sayyid al-Shuhada Husseiniya mosque were owed compensation. Fourteen Iranians were killed and 210 others wounded in the incident, which occurred during a ceremony to mourn the death of Imam Hussein, the third imam of Shi'a Muslims.

The court said Sharmahd was part of the Tondar group, which it deemed responsible for the bombing in Shiraz, according to the Mizan News Agency, which is affiliated with Iran's judiciary.

Sharmahd was detained under unclear circumstances in 2020 and is accused by the Iranian Intelligence Ministry of being a member of the Iranian opposition group Kingdom Assembly of Iran, or Tondar.

Based in Los Angeles, Tondar says it aims to overthrow the Islamic republic and reestablish a monarchy similar to that of Cyrus the Great. It runs pro-Iranian opposition radio and television stations abroad, as well as social media channels. Because it is based in the United States, the court ruled the U.S. government is also liable.

Iran's Intelligence Ministry accused Sharmahd of planning the bombing, a charge his family has robustly refuted, dismissing them as "ridiculous."

In November, Sharmahd's daughter, Gazelle Sharmahd, said her 68-year-old father is barely able to walk and talk due to health conditions that prison authorities have failed to properly treat. She added that her father suffers from Parkinson's disease and could die due to his deteriorating health

Iran is known to have assassinated and abducted multiple exiled opposition figures in the past, including Iranian journalist Ruhollah Zam, the administrator of the opposition Amadnews Telegram channel that has been accused by authorities of stirring up domestic dissent.

At least one other Iranian-German dual citizen, Nahid Taghvi, is also being held in Iran, which has arrested dozens of foreigners and dual nationals in recent years, often on widely criticized espionage and security-related charges.

Western countries have repeatedly said that Iran is trying to take advantage of foreign countries by taking dual and foreign nationals hostage and then using them in prisoner swaps.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Two Women Arrested In Tehran For Dancing Dressed As Fictional Folk Character

Tensions have been rising in Iran over public conduct by Iranians and the enforcement of dress codes, especially with women.
Tensions have been rising in Iran over public conduct by Iranians and the enforcement of dress codes, especially with women.

Two Iranian women were detained after a video surfaced on social media showing them dancing in Tehran's Tajrish Square while dressed as a fictional character in Iranian folklore known as "Haji Firuz."

Haji Firuz is traditionally associated with the celebrations leading up to Norouz, the Persian New Year, marking the onset of spring on March 20.

Their performance was deemed by the authorities to be an act of "social defiance," leading to their arrest by order of the Tehran prosecutor for "committing acts of norm-breaking," according to reports by the semiofficial Tasnim news agency.

Tensions have been rising in Iran over public conduct by Iranians and the enforcement of dress codes, especially with women.

In a separate incident in Qom, a city known for its religious significance, a confrontation at a medical center escalated into a national controversy.

The furor was touched off when a video emerged on social media that showed a clergyman filming a woman who was not wearing the mandatory hijab as she held a child in the clinic.

The visibly shaken mother pleaded with the cleric for him to delete the unauthorized recording, but he insisted on continuing, saying she had to adhere to the hijab rule. The confrontation continues until the woman appears to begin having a nervous breakdown while the cleric is seen fleeing the scene with his camera.

This encounter prompted significant reaction on social media, with initial reports from pro-government channels claiming that the woman, along with clinic staff, faced arrest by the intelligence arm of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps. They also claimed the medical center was temporarily closed.

However, government and judicial authorities rejected the claims and said that no arrests had been made in connection with the incident.

The Qom prosecutor has since ordered an investigation to identify those responsible for disseminating the footage to the media.

The hijab, or Islamic head scarf, became compulsory for women and girls over the age of 9 in 1981, two years after the Islamic Revolution in Iran. The move triggered protests that were swiftly crushed by the new authorities.

Many women have flouted the rule over the years and pushed the boundaries of what officials say is acceptable clothing.

Since September 2022, when 22-year-old Mahsa Amini died while in police custody for an alleged head-scarf violation, thousands of Iranians have taken to the streets to demand more freedoms and women's rights, with the judiciary, backed by lawmakers, responding to the biggest threat to the Islamic government since the 1979 revolution with a brutal crackdown.

Several thousand people have been arrested, including many protesters, as well as journalists, lawyers, activists, digital rights defenders, and others.

At least nine protesters have been executed after what rights groups and several Western governments have called "sham" trials.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Imprisoned Iranian Cleric Says Under Pressure To Confess To Crimes He Didn't Commit

Mohammad Taghi Akbarnejad, a cleric and vocal opponent of Iran's leadership, was arrested on February 17 by agents of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps' intelligence service.
Mohammad Taghi Akbarnejad, a cleric and vocal opponent of Iran's leadership, was arrested on February 17 by agents of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps' intelligence service.

In a rare phone call from Qom prison, Mohammad Taghi Akbarnejad, an Iranian cleric and seminary professor known for his outspoken criticism of Supreme Leader Ali Ayatollah Khamenei's policies, said he has been pressured to make false confessions and faces constant attempts by the authorities to discredit him.

Akbarnejad, who has been a vocal opponent of the Islamic republic's leadership, was arrested on February 17 by agents of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps' intelligence service.

During the call, Akbarnejad revealed he spent 14 days in solitary confinement at security detention centers where officers pressured him to confess.

"They pressured me to make false confessions for release without trial. They wanted me to appear on camera and express regret for my words and actions," he said, adding that he was being pressured to confess to crimes he did not commit.

When he refused, he said officials began fabricating cases against him and then pressuring needy families to file complaints against him claiming he misled them as a representative of the leadership.

Akbarnejad's criticism has not been limited to the current leadership. He has also targeted the foundational rhetoric and strategies of the Islamic republic, including those of its founder, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

In a widely shared social media video, he accused Khomeini of misunderstanding the world and leading the country astray, notably referring to the eight-year Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s as an example of misguided leadership.

The cleric has also critiqued the establishment's shift in rhetoric pre-and post-revolution, suggesting their current claims would not gain significant public support if put to a referendum.

Akbarnejad's situation appears to be part of a pattern of repression against clerics critical of Iran's supreme leadership.

In a related case, the Special Clerical Court of Shiraz recently sentenced Shahabeddin Haeri Shirazi to three years in prison, highlighting tensions within the clerical community and the authorities' efforts to suppress dissent.

Criticism of Khamenei, who has the last say on almost every decision in Iran, is considered a red line in Iran, and his critics often land in prison, where political prisoners are routinely held in solitary confinement and subjected to various forms of torture.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Rights Groups Say Hundreds Of Iranian Women Detained Last Year, Dozens Still Held

Iranian security officers patrol the streets for alleged head-scarf violations on March 4.
Iranian security officers patrol the streets for alleged head-scarf violations on March 4.

The human rights organization Hengaw said Iranian security agencies detained over 300 women for political or ideological reasons last year, with more than 100 still facing imprisonment for various charges.

According to a report released on March 8 by Hengaw, which closely tracks human rights violations in Iran, at least 325 women were apprehended by security forces across Iran in 2023. The detainees include a diverse group including at least 18 students, 17 journalists and media activists, 10 artists and actors, and seven teachers.

The same day, which was International Women's Day, the human rights monitor HRANA revealed the identities of 113 women who currently are imprisoned for their beliefs.

The charges laid against the women primarily encompass accusations of propaganda against the system, assembly and collusion, "corruption on Earth," and espionage. The allegations have led to severe penalties, including life prison sentences and multiple years of incarceration.

Hengaw's findings also highlighted the judicial proceedings against female activists in Iran during 2023.

It said at least 147 women activists were subjected to trials in Iran's judiciary system. The sentences handed down included imprisonment, lashing, and in one instance capital punishment.

In total, 139 female activists were condemned to a total of 553 years and 10 months of punitive imprisonment. Additionally, 10 individuals, apart from their prison sentences, were collectively sentenced to 557 lashes, underlining the harsh penalties faced by female activists in Iran.

Since September 2022, when 22-year-old Mahsa Amini died while in police custody for an alleged head-scarf violation, thousands of Iranians have taken to the streets to demand more freedoms and women's rights, with the judiciary, backed by lawmakers, responding to the biggest threat to the Islamic government since the 1979 revolution with a brutal crackdown.

Several thousand have been arrested, including many protesters, as well as journalists, lawyers, activists, digital rights defenders, and others. At least nine protesters have been executed after what rights groups and several Western governments have called "sham" trials.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Iran Rejects Critical UN Report On Death Of Mahsa Amini, Crackdown On Protests

A woman holds a portrait of her son, who was killed during the crackdown on protesters in Iran.
A woman holds a portrait of her son, who was killed during the crackdown on protesters in Iran.

Iran condemned a United Nations report on the September 2022 death of a 22-year-old woman in police custody and the protests that later erupted, denouncing what it called Western countries' "Iranophobia." The March 9 Foreign Ministry statement followed a UN mission report that found the Iranian government was responsible for the physical violence that led to the death of Mahsa Amini, and for the brutal crackdown on street protests. Amini was arrested in Tehran by the so-called morality police, accused of improperly wearing a head scarf. Within hours of her detention, she was hospitalized in a coma and died days later. Spokesman Nasser Kanani asserted the UN report contained "baseless claims" and "false and biased information, without a legal basis." To read the original story by RFE/RL's Radio Farda, click here.

Iranian Government 'Bears Responsibility' For Amini's Death, Brutal Crackdown, UN Mission Says

A mourner clutches a portrait of Mahsa Amini.
A mourner clutches a portrait of Mahsa Amini.

The Iranian government "bears responsibility" for the physical violence that led to the death of Mahsa Amini, the 22-year-old Iranian-Kurdish woman who died in police custody in 2022, and for the brutal crackdown on largely peaceful street protests that followed, a report by a United Nations fact-finding mission says.

The report, issued on March 8 by the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, said the mission “has established the existence of evidence of trauma to Ms. Amini’s body, inflicted while in the custody of the morality police."

It said the mission found the "physical violence in custody led to Ms. Amini’s unlawful death.... On that basis, the state bears responsibility for her unlawful death.”

Amini was arrested in Tehran on September 13, 2022, while visiting the Iranian capital with her family. She was detained by Iran's so-called "morality police" for allegedly improperly wearing her hijab, or hair-covering head scarf. Within hours of her detention, she was hospitalized in a coma and died on September 16.

Her family has denied that Amini suffered from a preexisting health condition that may have contributed to her death, as claimed by the Iranian authorities, and her father has cited eyewitnesses as saying she was beaten while en route to a detention facility.

The fact-finding report said the action “emphasizes the arbitrary character of Ms. Amini’s arrest and detention, which were based on laws and policies governing the mandatory hijab, which fundamentally discriminate against women and girls and are not permissible under international human rights law."

"Those laws and policies violate the rights to freedom of expression, freedom of religion or belief, and the autonomy of women and girls. Ms. Amini’s arrest and detention, preceding her death in custody, constituted a violation of her right to liberty of person,” it said.

The New York-based Center for Human Rights in Iran hailed the findings and said they represented clear signs of "crimes against humanity."

“The Islamic republic’s violent repression of peaceful dissent and severe discrimination against women and girls in Iran has been confirmed as constituting nothing short of crimes against humanity,” said Hadi Ghaemi, executive director of the center.

“The government’s brutal crackdown on the Women, Life, Freedom protests has seen a litany of atrocities that include extrajudicial killings, torture, and rape. These violations disproportionately affect the most vulnerable in society, women, children, and minority groups,” he added.

The report also said the Iranian government failed to “comply with its duty” to investigate the woman’s death promptly.

“Most notably, judicial harassment and intimidation were aimed at her family in order to silence them and preempt them from seeking legal redress. Some family members faced arbitrary arrest, while the family’s lawyer, Saleh Nikbaht, and three journalists, Niloofar Hamedi, Elahe Mohammadi, and Nazila Maroufian, who reported on Ms. Amini’s death were arrested, prosecuted, and sentenced to imprisonment,” it added.

Amini's death sparked mass protests, beginning in her home town of Saghez, then spreading around the country, and ultimately posed one of the biggest threats to Iran's clerical establishment since the foundation of the Islamic republic in 1979. At least 500 people were reported killed in the government’s crackdown on demonstrators.

The UN report said "violations and crimes" under international law committed in the context of the Women, Life, Freedom protests include "extrajudicial and unlawful killings and murder, unnecessary and disproportionate use of force, arbitrary deprivation of liberty, torture, rape, enforced disappearances, and gender persecution.

“The violent repression of peaceful protests and pervasive institutional discrimination against women and girls has led to serious human rights violations by the government of Iran, many amounting to crimes against humanity," the report said.

The UN mission acknowledged that some state security forces were killed and injured during the demonstrations, but said it found that the majority of protests were peaceful.

The mission stems from the UN Human Rights Council's mandate to the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran on November 24, 2022, to investigate alleged human rights violations in Iran related to the protests that followed Amini's death.

Activists Demand International Boycott Of Iran To 'Delegitimize The Regime'

The activists hailed the growing defiance of the mandatory head covering in Iran as an "achievement" of the Women, Life, Freedom movement, which was born out of the deadly 2022 unrest that rocked the country.
The activists hailed the growing defiance of the mandatory head covering in Iran as an "achievement" of the Women, Life, Freedom movement, which was born out of the deadly 2022 unrest that rocked the country.

Dozens of Iranian activists at home and abroad have called on the international community to boycott the Islamic republic for committing "gender apartheid."

In a statement marking International Women's Day on March 8, more than 40 activists and groups hailed the growing defiance against the mandatory head covering in Iran as an "achievement" of the Women, Life, Freedom movement, which was born out of the deadly 2022 unrest that rocked the country.

More than 500 protesters were killed in the protests that broke out following the death of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old Iranian-Kurdish woman who died in police custody after being detained for allegedly flouting the country's hijab law. Iran's brutal crackdown on the protests has been widely condemned by rights groups.

"This woman-killing regime has no legitimacy in Iran, and we ask the international community to also delegitimize the regime," the statement from the activists says.

In a separate statement, jailed Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi urged international rights groups to help the women of Iran and Afghanistan by pushing for “the criminalization of gender apartheid” committed by the Islamic republic and the Taliban-led government in Kabul through “systemic and targeted” discrimination against women.

Mohammadi, who won the 2023 Nobel Peace Prize, has been convicted five times since 2021 on various security-related charges and has been sentenced to more than 12 years in prison.

On March 4, London-based activist Fariba Baluch, who has been advocating for the rights of women and the Baluch ethnic minority in Iran, was awarded the U.S. State Department’s International Women of Courage Award.

"This award is not mine, but for all the nameless, courageous girls and women in Iran who are fighting for their basic demands," she told RFE/RL’s Radio Farda.

The United Nations' Independent International Fact-Finding Mission asserted in a report on March 8 that Iran's repression of the 2022 protests and "pervasive institutional discrimination against women" had led to serious human rights violations, "many amounting to crimes against humanity."

The fact-finding mission concluded that unless the Iranian establishment implements fundamental changes, member states of the UN Human Rights Council "should explore avenues for accountability at international level and in their domestic systems."

The Islamic republic has long been dismissive of concerns by Western states and rights groups about women's rights in Iran.

"The issue of women is a point of strength in Islam," Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said in an address to a group of women in December 2023. "It should not be thought that we are supposed to be held accountable on the issue of women."

Jailed Iranian Dissident Rapper Moved Back To Psychiatric Clinic

Saman Yasin
Saman Yasin

Jailed Iranian dissident rapper Saman Yasin, who was detained during the nationwide protests in 2022 and has since detailed harrowing accounts of physical and psychological torture he has endured, has once again been moved from prison to a psychiatric institution.

The Kurdistan Human Rights Network reported Yasin's transfer to the Aminabad Psychiatric Hospital in Rey on March 7, adding he was moved from the Qezelhesar prison in Karaj earlier this week.

The move has again put a spotlight on the treatment of political prisoners in Iran, where the judiciary sends offenders to psychiatric centers as part of their punishment. Prominent psychiatry boards in Iran have called the practice an abuse of judicial authority.

Yasin recently made a plea from prison to the judiciary to "issue my death sentence" rather than continue holding him indefinitely without a trial. He has been detained without trial for 18 months, with multiple court dates set and then subsequently delayed.

Initial reports suggest Yasin was first taken to a local police station during nationwide protests in September 2022 before being transferred to Evin prison and subsequently to the Greater Tehran prison.

The judiciary's news agency has reported that Yasin was accused of "waging war against God," a charge that led to a death sentence from the Tehran Revolutionary Court. However, the Supreme Court accepted Yasin's appeal for a retrial and referred his case back to the Revolutionary Court. A retrial has yet to take place.

Yasin has described enduring a "mock execution" set up by prison officials before being moved to prison in Karaj.

He has consistently maintained his innocence, releasing multiple audio recordings to publicize his claims. He has also reportedly launched at least one hunger strike in protest.

It's not Yasin's first transfer to Aminabad, where he previously reported adverse reactions to an unidentified medication, raising serious health concerns. The incident mirrors the case of Behnam Mahjoubi, a Gonabadi Dervish activist who died in 2021 following similar transfers and medical neglect.

Human rights lawyer Saeed Dehghan has criticized the use of psychiatric facilities like Aminabad for political prisoners, indicating a punitive approach by the judiciary and prison authorities.

Since the September 2022 death of Mahsa Amini in custody after she was detained for allegedly wearing a head scarf improperly, Iranians have taken to the streets across the country to protest a lack of rights, with women and schoolgirls making unprecedented shows of support in the biggest threat to the Islamic government since the 1979 revolution.

The judiciary, at the urging of lawmakers, has instituted harsh penalties, including the death sentence, for offenders.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

Oil Tanker Caught Up In Iran-U.S. Dispute Over Sanctions

Why did Iran seize the Advantage Sweet, a Marshall Islands-flagged oil tanker bound for the United States? (file photo)
Why did Iran seize the Advantage Sweet, a Marshall Islands-flagged oil tanker bound for the United States? (file photo)

When Iran seized a Marshall Islands-flagged oil tanker last year, Tehran said the transporter had collided with and damaged an Iranian vessel in the Gulf of Oman.

Now, nearly one year later, Tehran said it will confiscate the cargo of the Advantage Sweet, which was transporting oil from Kuwait to the U.S. state of Texas, in retaliation for crippling American sanctions against the Islamic republic.

The Mizan news agency, which is affiliated with Iran's judiciary, reported on March 6 that a Tehran court had ruled in favor of confiscating the oil, which is valued at around $50 million.

The 55th branch of the Tehran Court of Justice said funds from the sale of the oil will be used to compensate patients suffering from epidermolysis bullosa, a rare skin disease. The court ruled that U.S. sanctions have prevented a Swedish company from selling medicine to Iran that is used to treat the disease and caused Iranian “patients severe emotional and physical damage.”

EB Home, an Iranian nongovernmental organization representing over 300 epidermolysis bullosa patients, had brought a case against the United States in the Tehran court. In a statement following the court ruling, the NGO described U.S. sanctions as “criminal and unilateral.”

U.S. State Department spokesman Matthew Miller criticized the ruling and demanded that the tanker be “immediately released.”

“Iran’s continued harassment of vessels and interference with navigational rights and freedoms in the region’s vital waterways is a threat to maritime security, regional stability, and the global economy,” he said in a press briefing on March 6.

The U.S. military said in January that Iran was “holding five ships and over 90 members hostage” from vessels it seized in 2023. Most Iranian tanker seizures are carried out by the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), the elite branch of Iran’s armed forces.

Iran said it seized the Advantage Sweet in April 2023. The tanker was chartered by U.S. oil giant Chevron and was carrying oil to the U.S. port of Houston, according to ship tracking data.

Iran’s capture of the Advantage Sweet came days after the United States seized Suez Rajan, an oil tanker that was transporting sanctioned Iranian oil to China.

Months after seizing the Suez Rajan, and despite Tehran’s threats, Washington begun unloading the ship’s oil in August 2023.

Sanctions And 'Butterfly' Patients

The Tehran court’s ruling has put the spotlight on the impact of U.S. sanctions on the health sector in Iran.

In 2018, then-U.S. President Donald Trump unilaterally withdrew Washington from a landmark nuclear deal between Iran and world powers and reimposed sanctions against Tehran.

Iranians have witnessed rising prices and faced shortages of life-saving medicine -- including drugs for cancer treatment and insulin -- in recent years due to U.S. sanctions and corruption.

U.S. sanctions imposed on Iran exclude food and medicine. But in practice, the restrictions have made it difficult for Tehran to purchase some drugs, according to human rights groups.

There are estimated to be hundreds of epidermolysis bullosa patients in Iran.(file photo)
There are estimated to be hundreds of epidermolysis bullosa patients in Iran.(file photo)

That includes specialized bandages produced by Swedish firm Molnlycke that are used to treat epidermolysis bullosa patients, who often develop painful blisters and wounds, similar to third-degree burns. They are sometimes referred to as “butterfly” patients due to the fragility of their skin.

State Department spokesman Miller told reporters on March 6 that U.S. sanctions “have always had a carveout for humanitarian purchases.”

“We have never prevented medicine from reaching the Iranian people,” he added.

EB Home, the Iranian NGO, had previously filed an unsuccessful complaint against Molnlycke in Sweden in 2021.

In its failed complaint, the NGO claimed that Molnlycke had informed it in March 2019 correspondence that it had “decided not to conduct any business with relation to Iran for the time being. This also applies to business conducted under any form of exceptions to the US economic sanctions.”

In a 2021 report, United Nations experts warned about the consequences of “over-compliance” with U.S. sanctions on “butterfly kids,” who they said “can no longer enjoy the right to health.”

The following year, the Swedish government provided financial support to the United Nations Children's Fund to procure and deliver specialized bandages to Iran.

“The lack of availability of certain medicines and health products in Iran is a humanitarian concern, affected by the impact of the sanctions regime on financial transactions,” Sweden’s then-ambassador to Iran, Mattias Lentz, said. “We do hope a solution will be found and will continue to support such a solution.”

U.S. Treasury Chief Says Congress Inaction On Ukraine Aid A 'Gift' To Putin, Iran

U.S. Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen (file photo)
U.S. Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen (file photo)

U.S. Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen said on March 7 that Congress's inaction in approving new U.S. aid to Ukraine is "nothing short of a gift" to Russian President Vladimir Putin, Iran, and other adversaries as Ukrainian forces run short of ammunition to fight Russia's invasion. In remarks at the start of a meeting with German Economy Minister Robert Habeck in Washington, Yellen urged House of Representatives Speaker Mike Johnson again to swiftly pass a $61 billion military and economic aid package for Ukraine.

Baha'is Say Iranian Security Forces Destroyed 30 Graves At Tehran Cemetery

The actions of the Islamic republic's authorities not only inflicted severe and fresh pain on these families, but also underscored the "inhumanity of their conduct" toward believers, a Baha'i spokeswoman said.
The actions of the Islamic republic's authorities not only inflicted severe and fresh pain on these families, but also underscored the "inhumanity of their conduct" toward believers, a Baha'i spokeswoman said.

Officials from Iran's Baha'i community say Iranian security forces have destroyed more than 30 graves at the Golestan Javid, a cemetery dedicated to Baha'is in Tehran, in what they characterized as an attempt to erase the existence of the deceased because of their religious beliefs.

According to a statement from the Baha'i International Community group, the targeted graves were located in the Khavaran mass grave site and the demolition was done with the aim of completely obscuring the presence of the burial sites.

Simin Fahandej, the spokeswoman for the Worldwide Baha’i Community in Geneva, said the actions of the Islamic republic's authorities not only inflicted severe and fresh pain on these families, but also underscored the "inhumanity of their conduct" toward believers.

Since the Islamic Republic of Iran was established in 1979, hundreds of Baha'is have been arrested and jailed for their beliefs. At least 200 have been executed or were arrested and never heard from again.

Thousands more have been banned from receiving higher education or had their property confiscated, while Baha'i cemeteries are often desecrated in what Baha'is say is the systematic targeting of the group.

The Khavaran cemetery in the east of the capital was traditionally a final resting place for members of religious minorities who were interred there to keep them separate from the graves of Muslims.

But decades of forced disappearances and secret extrajudicial executions have made Khavaran best-known as a secret burial ground for some of the thousands killed.

The graves at Khavaran are unmarked, and Tehran has for decades barred families of the dead from mourning there and punished those who left flowers and mementos.

In April 2023, Baha'i believers Shadi Shahidzadeh, Mansour Amini, Vahid Qadamian, and Ataollah Zafar were arrested in connection with activities related to the cemetery. Three months later, Tehran's Revolutionary Court sentenced each to five years in prison.

Iran accuses Baha'is of having links to Israel, where the city of Haifa hosts a center of the Baha'i faith. Baha'i leaders reject the allegations and say they are used as a pretext to persecute members.

There are some 300,000 Baha'i adherents in Iran and an estimated 5 million worldwide.

In Iran, where their faith is not officially recognized in the constitution, its leaders say they face systematic persecution.

Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has on several occasions called the Baha'i faith a cult and, in a religious fatwa issued in 2018, he forbade contact, including business dealings, with followers of the faith.

Written by Ardeshir Tayebi based on an original story in Persian by RFE/RL's Radio Farda

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